The tribal group of the Shuar, formerly also known as ‘Jivaro’, lives on the eastern slopes of the Andes, in the three-country crossroads of Equador, Peru and north west Brazil. The Shuar are the only people in the world who once traditionally produced shrunken heads (up until the 19th century).
The reason for this custom lies in the belief system of the Shuar. They believe that every human can possess three souls:
1: The innate soul, which one cannot influence. After the death of the individual, this becomes a cloud in the heavens.
2: The second soul, the ‘Arutam’, the most important soul for the warriors of the Shuar. One can and must attain this ‘Arutam soul’ oneself. This is accomplished via ceremonies at ‘sacred sites’, via asceticism and visions. Subsequently, this acquired ‘Arutam soul’ must be multiplied and increased. This is done by killing other, enemy Shuar warriors, whose ‘Arutam souls’ are then taken over. In this fashion, one becomes a ‘great man’, a ‘Kakaram.’ This conception of souls is the actual reason for the head-hunting of the Shuar.
3: At the moment of death of a victim of head-hunting, the dangerous vengeful soul (‘Muisak wakani’) develops in the body. Therefore, the head of the victim must be processed into a shrunken head as quickly as possible. The head was separated at the neck from the body, and the skin including the hair pulled from the bones. Skin and hair were boiled for a long time in a special plant liquid. By these means, the skin shrank to about a third of its original size. The hair maintained its original length. Then the skin was filled with hot sand creating a now fist-sized ‘head’, and a ‘new’ face was formed. The ‘Tsantsa’ was dried over a fire and the leather-hard, stiff skin was finally coloured black with soot. A plaited carrying strap was then attached to the top of the head and ornamental pendants made of colourful toucan feathers, green iridescent beetle wings and black hair to both ears. The mouth was firmly closed with three wooden pegs (of the Chonta palm) and white cotton strings. This was done to ensure that the revengeful soul (‘Muisak wakani’) could not emerge and do harm to the killer and his family. The present shrunken head shows the aforementioned penultimate (and very rarely preserved) stage in the creation of a ‘Tsantsa’ (with 3 wooden pegs in both lips). Subsequently, the wooden pegs would be removed and replaced with long, white cotton strings. The killer then returned with his ‘Tsantsa’ to his home village, where the acquisition and increase of his ‘Arutam soul’ was celebrated with great ceremonies and dances. Towards the end of the 19th century, the Shuar abandoned head-hunting and with it the production of shrunken heads. At the same time, ‘Tsantsa’ became much sought-after collectors’ items, especially in North America. For this reason there are today many more fake shrunken heads than real ones in collections and on the market (made out of animal skin and other things). Authentic ceremonial 'Tsantsa' such as this one are today extremely rare. Height: c. 15 cm (the head alone); c. 50 cm (with hair). 19th century. (ME)

Provenance:
Pursuant to information supplied by the consigner, the present item has been owned by a German family of physicians since the late 19th/early 20th century and passed down within the family by inheritance; currently: Belgian private collection.

Lit.:
‘Shrunken Heads’ by James Lee Castner, ill. p. 3, p. 29, p. 33, p. 41, p. 42, pp. 96–99, and cover photograph on the back cover.